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CLICK HERE FOR CESIUM THESIS BY J. FONTANILLA

_ CESIUM THESIS______________________________________________________________________ Polytechnic University of the Philippines
College of Engineering
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATIONS ENGINEERING
3RD Floor Engineering and Architecture Building, NDC compound, Sta. Mesa, Manila

CESIUM: AN ESSENTIAL ELEMENT TO HUMAN LIVES

____________________________

A Historical Research Presented to ENGR. MARIANITO P. GALLEGO JR. Polytechnic University of the Philippines
____________________________
In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Subject MATERIALS SCIENCE under the Degree BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATIONS ENGINEERING
____________________________
by
Joie B. Fontanilla
October 2005
NOTE: < - - - ©JOIE FONTANILLA ”CESIUM” POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPINES 2005© - - >
APPROVAL SHEET
This research entitled, “CESIUM: AN ESSENTIAL ELEMENT TO HUMAN LIVES”, prepared and submitted by Joie B. Fontanilla, in partial fulfillment of the requirements under the subject Materials Science for the degree of Bachelor of Science in Electronics and Communications Engineering, has been examined and is recommended for acceptance and approval of ORAL DELIVIRATION.
Engr. Marianito Gallego Jr.
Adviser
PANEL OF EXAMINERS Approved by the Committee on Oral Examination with a grade of __________. ____________________________ Chairman _________________________________ _____________________________ Member Member Accepted and approved in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Science in Electronics and Communications Engineering.
Date: October 7, 2005
Engr. Ben B. Andres Dean
Acknowledgement
This thesis is the result of more than a month of labors, wearies, and also misuses whereby I have been accompanied and supported by some people. It is a nice thing that I have now to give my thanks for all of them. I would like to thank to my professor Engr. Marianito Gallego Jr. in his instructions on how to do this work. Furthermore, He elaborately instructed from macro to micro the things related in creating this historical thesis. My colleagues gave me their assistance to do this work. Leonard Landicho, Dempsey Paulo, Flord Olango, Jolly Golloso, Michael Paul Samar, Jan Michael Jimenez, Joel Agu, Michael Cruz, and many more. Many thanks for being your colleague. This thesis is supported by information from past researches and information from the internet. I am very grateful to all kind-hearted authors of the websites wherein I’ve got data and information. They were offering their knowledge and works free. Others information on the internet are not accessible which requires something to pay off in order to read nor to access. The sequence of my gratitude would be definitely incomplete if I would forget to thank the one, the first and foremost which I ought to thank of, to our Lord Jesus Christ and God. As I wish not to forget the message of this verses in the bible; Jer.9:23-24 “Thus saith the LORD, Let not the wise man glory in his wisdom, neither let the mighty man glory in his might, let not the rich man glory in his riches: But let him that glorieth glory in this, that he understandeth and knoweth me, that I am the LORD which exercise lovingkindness, judgment, and righteousness, in the earth: for in these things I delight, saith the LORD”.
Table of Contents
PRELIMINARY PAGES Title Page Approval Sheet Acknowledgement Table of Contents THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND Introduction Background of the study Conceptual Framework Theoretical Framework Statement of the Problem and Sub-problems Hypothesis Significance of the Study Scope and Delimitation Definition of Terms THE RESEARCHES Cesium Therapy in Cancer Patients The High pH Therapy for Cancer Caesium Atomic Clocks: function, Performance and Applications Cesium Induces Spontaneous Epileptiform Activity Without Changing Extracellular Potassium Regulation in Rat Hippocampus Fabrication and Measurement of Cesiated Metal Photocathode THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Research Method Research Locale THE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Conclusions Recommendations BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDICES The Author’s Information
The Problem and Its Background
Introduction
As a requirement in my subject Engineering Materials, I am obliged to do this work. I am lucky because the element Cesium was the task assigned to me. This was better assignment because Cesium is a famous element, thus having much information among other rare elements. Information’s are gathered from various sources in the internet and published books. This research paper aims to contribute and as well to serve as information profitable to every one of us. This is a historical research for the chemical element Cesium. Shown in this work is the general information concerning Cesium from where this element originated, the means or processes made to obtain Cesium, and the history of its discovery. Further, it discusses risks and hazards associated with cesium. Also, this study will specify the means to acquire Cesium and with the resulted product when combined with other elements as a part of the theoretical framework of the study. Moreover, this study will satisfy the query on how this Cesium element contributes to the welfare of human lives. Since this element is famous in medical purposes.
Background of the Study
Cesium is classified as an "Alkali Metal" and located in Group 1 elements of the Periodic Table. An Element classified as an Alkali Metal is a very reactive metal that does not occur freely in nature. Alkali metals are soft, malleable, ductile, and are good conductors of heat and electricity. Its occurrence in the atmosphere was in the form of pollucite and lepidolite. Cesium was discovered on 1860 by Fustov Kirchoff and Robert Bunsen from mineral water found in Durkheim, Germany. It was the first element discovered by spectrum analysis. It came from the Latin word “caesius” which means skyblue. It was called Cesium from “caesius” because it has bright-blue lines in its spectrum . Its formula or symbol was Cs thus it belongs to Alkali metals. About its physical property; its boiling point is 682 C and melting point of 28 C. Its appearance was shiny bronze-colored metal and is odorless. It reacts violently when mixed with water. Ceasium, generally spelt as Cesium is a soft, silvery-white ductile metal, in the form of liquid at room temperature, the most electropositive and alkaline of the elements, used in photoelectric cells and to catalyze hydrogenation of some organic compounds. The most common uses of Cesium are in atomic clocks, removes air traces in vacuum tubes, Ion propulsion systems, Medical, Photoelectric cells, Cesium vapor and the Magnetometer. In summary, below is the simplified information regarding to the element, Cesium. The Properties of the Element Cesium Name of Element: Cesium Symbol of Element: Cs Atomic Number of Cesium: 55 Atomic Mass: 132.90546 amu Melting Point: 28.5 °C - 301.65 °K Boiling Point: 678.4 °C - 951.55005 °K Number of Protons/Electrons in Cesium : 55 Number of Neutrons in Cesium : 78 Crystal Structure: Cubic Density @ 293 K: 1.873 g/cm3 Color of Cesium : silvery-white Cesium ranks about 46th in natural abundance among the elements in crustal rocks. Cesium melts at about 28° C (about 82° F), boils at about 669° C (about 1236° F), and has a specific gravity of 1.88; its atomic weight is 132.905. The natural source yielding the greatest quantity of cesium is the rare mineral pollux (or pollucite). Ores of this mineral found on the island of Elba contain 34 percent of cesium oxide; American ores of pollux, found in Maine and South Dakota, contain 13 percent of the oxide. Cesium also occurs in lepidolite, carnallite, and certain feldspars. It is extracted by separating the cesium compound from the mineral, transforming the compound thus obtained into the cyanide, and electrolysis of the fused cyanide. Cesium can also be obtained by heating its hydroxides or carbonates with magnesium or aluminum and by heating its chlorides with calcium. Commercial cesium usually contains rubidium, with which it usually occurs in minerals and which resembles it so closely that no effort is made to separate them. Like potassium, cesium oxidizes readily when exposed to air and is thus used to remove residual oxygen from radio vacuum tubes. Because of its property of emitting electrons when exposed to light, it is used in the photosensitive surface of the cathode of the photoelectric cell. The radioactive isotope cesium-137, which is produced by nuclear fission, is a useful by-product of atomic-energy plants. Cesium-137 emits more energy than radium and is used in medical and industrial research. Caesium (cesium in USA) is not a common element since it is the 45th most abundant in the earth's crust. Caesium occurs in pollucite. Pollucite is a hydrated caesium silicate of aluminium (2Cs2O.2Al2O3.9SiO2.H2O). Pollucite is found in Norh America, Italy, Kazakstan, and Sweden. Cesium is also found in rhodizite, a borate mineral containing aluminium, caesium, beryllium, and sodium. This is found in the Urals and in Madgascar. Caesium is also contained in some potassium ores. Appropriate care must be imposed in all manners regarding Cesium compounds that is in usage, disposing and discarding materials having Cesium compounds. Conceptual Framework Input Process Output Fig. # 1 The Research Paradigm of Cesium
Theoretical Framework
In physics and physical chemistry, the study of spectra is called Spectroscopy. Spectroscopy is used in determining unknown compounds thus it is a very useful tool in science, medicine, and industry. Cesium belongs to the rare element. The production of Cesium is quite few, meaning it is expensive. And as a brief picture of the prices of Cesium, several companies issued prices for cesium and cesium compounds, which have remained relatively stable for several years. The per-unit price for the metal or compounds purchased from these companies varies inversely with the quantity of material purchased. For example, in 1998 one company offered 1-gram ampoules of 99.98-percent cesium metal at $60.90. The price for 100 grams of the same material from this company was $919, or $9.19 per gram. At another company, the price for a 2-gram ampoule of 99.95-percent cesium was $89, or $44.50 per gram. The radioactive isotope cesium-137, which is produced by nuclear fission, is a useful by-product of atomic-energy plants. Cesium also occurs in lepidolite, carnallite, and certain feldspars. It is extracted by separating the cesium compound from the mineral, transforming the compound thus obtained into the cyanide, and electrolysis of the fused cyanide. Cesium can also be obtained by heating its hydroxides or carbonates with magnesium or aluminum and by heating its chlorides with calcium. cesium oxidizes readily when exposed to air and is thus used to remove residual oxygen from radio vacuum tubes. Because of its property of emitting electrons when exposed to light, it is used in the photosensitive surface of the cathode of the photoelectric cell. Cesium is also used in industries in the fabrication of Photocathode and Cesium Clocks. Cesium is very useful element not only in industry but also in medical. It is used in medication for treating all sorts of cancer and other malignancies. It is observed that there are places in the world wherein the occurrence of cancer is almost zero. Many studies conducted to determine the reason why the cancer is unknown to those places. Such those places are in the Hopi Indian territory in Arizona, the Hunza area in North Pakistan, and the volcanic regions of Brazil. Previous studies established a conclusion that it is because of the presence of high levels of Cesium in their environment and in food along with availability of various supportive compounds as vitamins A and C, along with zinc and selenium in their diet. The diet of these populations is similar to the nutritive requirements for the high Ph cancer therapy developed by Brewer subsequent series of physical experiments with cancer cells. Certain foods contain biologically active compounds and/or ingredients, i.e., vitamins inorganic salts, organic compounds, essential fatty acids, minerals, and chelating agents which may either precipitate or prevent cancer development. The relationship between dietary consumption and cancer development is not clear and further investigation continues. In these work the presence of Cesium in the adjacent fluids of the tumor cell is assumed or believed to raise the pH of the cancer cell where mitosis will cease resulting in reduction of life span of the cancer cell. The introduction of such alkaline Ph by these alkali salts may also neutralize the acidic and toxic material within the cancer cell. This report combines the use of CsCl with various supportive agents. which have been hypothesized both to enhance the entry of Cs+ into the cancer cell and to stimulate the immune response, in the treatment of various cancers. Cesium is one of the three elements that is able to enter into a cancer cell. Statement of the Problem This research will tend to discuss why cesium was distinguished as a very essential to humanity. The researcher wants to elaborate further the following problems: 1. How Cesium was discovered? 2. How abundant is Cesium on Earth? 3. How is Cesium obtained or produced? 4. How Cesium worked to cure cancer cells? 5. How threatening is Cesium to human lives? Hypothesis Cesium is a threatening element to human lives and may not be considered as an essential element. A historical incident which is the Chernobyl’s Accident, the worst nuclear accident happened in the history led to a burden of Russians and resulting in the evacuation and resettlement of 200,000 people. Almost 20% of farmland was removed from production afterwards because of serious contamination due to radiation of Radioactive Cesium.
Significance of the Study
The significance of this study will generally be benefited the different institutions, and the citizens of Philippines. This includes those government hospitals, various organizations and concerned individuals having shortage of money. Those people who are infected or having cancer are among the beneficiaries of this research. Anyone having cancer and their concerned relatives or friends can make easy access of information on the element Cesium once this study publicized. This researched can be easily understood since the words, phrases and sentences used here are simply, together with the description of terms are listed. Even though Internet is widely used today for gathering information you have at least several website to open and compare the given listed information before making the information absolute or correct.
Scope of Delimitation
This research emphasized the historical aspect of the Cesium element wherein it includes the origin of the element, the discoverer of the element and the process done to obtain the Cesium element together with the negative effects of this element to human, animals and the environment. Moreover, this research is based on gathered information of researches, explorations and experiments done before. Here also includes the different processes done to obtain the said element. Likewise, it will discuss how this Cesium element combined with other chemical element produces a new compound used for Medical purposes and etc. Although, information brought in this research are mainly based on the researches, explorations and experiments done before and any latest improvement or developments will be recognized for potential improvement of this research.
Definition of Terms
Alkali Metals - series of six chemical elements in group 1 (or Ia) of the periodic table. Atomic Clock - device that measures time by the frequency of radiation emitted by an atom or molecule when it makes a transition between two energy states. Autopsy - the medical examination of a dead body in order to establish the cause and circumstances of death Carnallite - greasy, milk-white or reddish mineral, an important source of potash compounds used in fertilizers. Chemotheraphy - the use of chemical agents to treat diseases, infections, or other disorders, especially cancer Epileptiform – Similar to Epilepsy Hippocampus- area of brain associated with memory: either of two curved ridges of tissue in the brain, located in the floor of the cavity (ventricle) within each of the cerebral hemispheres and concerned with basic drives, emotions, and short-term memory. Together with the hypothalamus, the hippocampi and their connections form part of the limbic system. Isotopes - different forms of an element that have the same number of protons in the nucleus but a different number of neutrons Feldspar - large group of minerals composed of aluminosilicates of potassium, sodium, calcium, or occasionally barium. They occur as single crystals or as masses of crystals and form an important constituent of many igneous and metamorphic rocks, including granite, gneiss, basalt, and other crystalline rocks. Kaolin (Chinese kaoling,”high ridge”) - or china clay, a pure, soft, white clay of variable but usually low plasticity that retains its white color when fired. pH - a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution, such as vinegar, or a damp substance, such as soil. The pH of pure water is 7 with lower numbers indicating acidity and higher numbers indicating alkalinity. Metastatic - the spread of a cancer from the original tumor to other parts of the body by means of tiny clumps of cells transported by the blood or lymph Comatose – Unable to function Nasogastric - passing through the nose to the stomach Lymphoma - a malignant tumor originating in a lymph node, for example, Hodgkin’s disease or any of the range of cancers known as non-Hodgkin’s lymphomas Photoelectric Cell - also phototube, electron tube in which the electrons initiating an electric current originate by photoelectric emission. Epilepsy - a medical disorder involving episodes of abnormal electrical discharge in the brain and characterized by periodic sudden loss or impairment of consciousness, often accompanied by convulsions. Theraphy - treatment of physical, mental, or behavioral problems that is meant to cure or rehabilitate somebody Vacuum Tubes - electronic devices, consisting of a glass or steel vacuum envelope and two or more electrodes between which electrons can move freely. It is an old component substituted by transistor.
The Researches
A Cesium-therapy program conducted in April 1981 by Dr. H.E. Sartori at Life Sciences Universal Medical Clinics in Rockville is presented below. A number of fifty patients with extensive metastatic tumor deposits were treated.
Cesium Therapy in Cancer Patients
Abstract Treatment was performed on 50 patients during the last three years at Life Sciences Universal Medical Clinics in Rockville MD and in Washington D.C. All patients were terminal subjects with generalized metastatic disease. Forty-seven of the 50 patient’s studies had received maximal modalities of treatment, i.e., surgery, radiation, and various chemotherapies, before metabolic Cs-treatment was initiated. Three patients were comatose and 14 of the patients were considered terminal due to previous treatments outcome and cancer complications. The type of cancer of the patients studied and their number is detailed in table 1. There were other compounds mixed with cesium to produce adequate circulation and oxygenation. According to individual cases CsCl was given at daily dosages of 6 to 9 grams in 3 equally divided doses, with vitamin A-emulsion (100,000 to 300,000 U), vitamin C (4 to 30 grams), zinc (80 to 100 mg) selenium (600 to 1,200 mcg) and amygdalin (1,500 mg) in addition to other supplementations according to the specific needs of the patient. The diet consisted mainly of whole grains, vegetables, linolenic acid rich oils (linseed, walnut, soy, wheat germ) and other supplemental food. To increase efficiency of the treatment and improve the circulation and oxygenation, the patients received the chelating agent EDTA, dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) and also a combination of vitamins, K and Mg salts. Results The results of the Cs-treatment of 50 cancer patients studied over 3 years. They had generalized metastatic disease, except for 3 patients. Initial death occurrences fir the initial 2 week treatment was in the same order and magnitude of these recorded for the 12 month period. The percent of survival of breast, colon, prostate, pancreas, and lung cancer accounted to approximately, 50% recovery which was higher than that noted for liver cancer and the lymphoma patients treated. An overall 50% recovery from cancer by the Cs-therapy was determined in the 50 patients treated. Data from the autopsy made indicated the absence of tumors in patient dying within 14 days of the Cs-treatment. One of the most striking effects of the treatment was the disappearance of pain in all patients within 1 to 3 days after initiation of the Cs-therapy. These studies were performed under my direction, initiated in April, 1981. Twenty-eight patients were initially treated with CsCl between April, 1981 to October, 1982. They were subjected to various cancer therapies, e.g., surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy, and were considered terminal cases with metastatic disease except for 3 patients who were not previously treated. Three patients were comatose at the time of the Cs treatment. Thirteen patients died within less than 2 weeks of treatment. Each patient showed a reduction in tumor mass by the Cs-treatment. Of the breast cancer patients, the most impressive effect was seen n a female patient who was comatose at the beginning of the Cs-treatment and was considered a terminal case. The Cs-therapy, with other ingredients used, was immediately instituted by nasogastric route because there was no cooperation from the patient. The daily CsCl dose given amounted to 30 grams, 10 grams given 3 times daily. The patient was able to leave after 5 days of treatment. However the patient's fall on the floor resulted in complications, i.e., fracture of the neck, and death. The autopsy revealed that the cancer metastasis had essentially eaten away her hip bone causing this tragic accident. The autopsy performed also showed the presence of very little cancer tissue. The next most frequent cancer treated was of unknown primary. Treatment of 8 cases showed a death rate of 2 within 14 days of treatment and an additional 2 deaths within 12 months while 4 of the patients are still living. In one case, an autopsy was made in a patient after one week of Cs-treatment and showed a complete disappearance of the cancer. There were 7 cases of colon cancer patients who were treated with CsCl. Two of these patients died within 14 days, one of the patients had previous massive chemotherapy, and little time was available to restore her metabolic condition. The previous existing infiltration of the abdominal wall disappeared. However, no consent was given for an autopsy. In one lymphoma case the patient displayed an unusually large abdomen which was hard and he weighed approximately 250 pounds. The massively enlarged abdomen began to decline in volume, i.e., a loss of approximately 120 pounds of body weight was noted after 3 months of the Cs- therapy. The spleen which was originally maximally enlarged and reaching into the pelvis was reduced to almost normal size. The liver position was down to about the level of the umbilicus and was also reduced to normal size in 3 months. The patient is still living after 3 years after his discharge. Unfortunately, there is no follow-up on this patient and he is being maintained on chemotherapy. Conclusion The application of Cesium treatment to patients having cancer was effective. Cesium treatment is advisable to those people having cancer. In the above experiment presented, most people undergo to Cs-therapy after they were subjected to various cancer therapies. It is meant that their treatment wasn’t anymore able to cure them. Moreover, they may have a vital organ that has been damaged beyond such therapies. However after switching to Cs-therapy, approximately 50% of patients with breast, colon, prostrate, pancreas, and lung cancer survived. After the Cesium-therapy for cancer patients, another experiment was followed in Jan 1984. Ph.D. A. Keith Brewer conducted his study which is the high ph therapy for cancer tested on mice and humans. The term pH used pertains to the range of cells acidity and alkalinity; higher values indicating alkalinity and lower numbers indicating acidity.
The High pH Therapy for Cancer
Abstract Mass spectrographic and isotope studies have shown that potassium, rubidium, and especially cesium are most efficiently taken up by cancer cells. This uptake was enhanced by Vitamins A and C as well as salts of zinc and selenium. The quantity of cesium taken up was sufficient to raise the cell to the 8 pH range. Where cell mitosis ceases and the life of the cell is short. Tests on mice fed cesium and rubidium showed marked shrinkage in the tumor masses within 2 weeks. In addition, the mice showed none of the side effects of cancer. Tests have been carried out on over 30 humans. In each case the tumor masses disappeared. Also all pains and effects associated with cancer disappeared within 12 to 36 hr; the more chemotherapy and morphine the patient had taken, the longer the withdrawal period. Studies of the food intake in areas where the incidences of cancer are very low showed that it met the requirements for the high pH therapy. Results Test on Mice: The High pH therapy was first tested at American University in Washington, DC using mice. In these tests, 2 mm cubes of mammary tumors were implanted in the abdomens of mice and allowed to grow for 8 days. The mice were then divided into two groups. Both groups were continued on mouse chow, but the test group was given 1.11 g of rubidium carbonate by mouth per day in aqueous solution. After 13 more days the controls were starting to die so all mice were sacrificed and the tumors removed and weighed. The tumors in the test animals weighed only one eleventh of those in the controls. In addition, the test animals were showing none of the adverse effects of having cancer [3]. Results similar to those mentioned above were obtained at Platteville, WI using CsCl. More recently, Platteville has studied intraperitoneal injection of cesium carbonate for mice with abdominal tumor implants with 97% curative effect. The results were most successful and showed a drastic shrinkage in the tumor masses. Test on Humans: Many tests on humans have been carried out by H. Nieper in Hannover, Germany and by H. Sartori in Washington, DC as well as by a number of other physicians. On the whole, the results have been very satisfactory. It has been observed that all pains associated with cancer disappear within 12 to 24 hr, except in a very few cases where there was a morphine withdrawal problem that required a few more hours. In these tests 2 g doses of CsCl were administered three times per day after eating. In most cases 5 to 10 g of Vitamin C and 100,000 units of Vitamin A, along with 50 to 100 mg of zinc, were also administered. Both Nieper and Sartori were also administering nitrilosides in the form of laetrile. There are good reasons to believe that the laetrile may be more effective than the vitamins in enhancing the pickup of cesium by the cells. In addition to the loss of pains, the physical results are a rapid shrinkage of the tumor masses. The material comprising the tumors is secreted as uric acid in the urine; the uric acid content of the urine increases many fold. About 50% of the patients were pronounced terminal, and were not able to work. Of these, a majority have gone back to work. Two side effects have been observed in some of the patients. These are first nausea, and the second diarrhea. Both depend upon the general condition of the digestive tract. Nieper feels that nausea can be prevented by administering the cesium in a solution of sorbitol. The diarrhea may, to some extent, be affected by the Vitamin C. Only one case history will be presented here. A woman with 2 hard tumor masses 8 to 10 cm in diameter, one on her thyroid and one on her chest, was given 3 to 6 months to live. She had been subjected to chemotherapy, but was discontinued because it weakened her. She was taking laetrile on her own. She was given a 50 g bottle of CsCl and was told to take 4 g per day. She reported her case a year later. Being very frightened she took the entire 50 g in one week. At the end of that time the tumor masses were very soft, so she obtained another 50 g of CsCl and took it in another week. By the end of that time she could not find the tumors, and two years later there was no sign of their return. Conclusion It was an awesome story of a woman wherein she stopped to chemotherapy for the reason that it weakened her. She took the entire 50g of CsCl in one week and another 50g in the following week. Remember the dosage gave to her was only 4g per day, that is only equal to 28g per week. And luckily, the tumors were vanished. This is just because of the effectiveness of Cesium Chloride intake. Clock is a device displaying the time. It is a self-sufficient device that measures and records time, which it displays by a pointer on a clock face or by a digital display. However, a glimpse of truth regarding clocks is their misuses in time displayed. Clocks like watches, the old pendulum, quartz crystal-clock and such many ordinary clocks encounters inaccuracy with respect to their time displayed. But the problem regarding the inaccuracy of time displayed wasn’t anymore a problem. The Cesium Atomic Clock presented below solved the problem regarding time inaccuracy.
Caesium atomic clocks: function, Performance and Applications
Abstract For more than four decades, caesium atomic clocks have been the backbone in a variety of demanding applications in science and technology. Neither satellite based navigation systems, like the US Global Positioning System, nor the synchronization of telecommunication networks at the presently prescribed levels, would function without them. Recent years have brought major breakthroughs in the development, operation and mutual comparison of frequency standards based on the same hyperfine transition in caesium as used previously, but now incorporating the technique of laser cooling. Several cold-atom fountains have been developed. Mutual agreement to within about one part in 10 15 has been demonstrated for two of them operated side by side, and also for two operated simultaneously, in the US and Germany. This paper gives an overview of currently available commercial caesium clocks and primary standards developed in national metrology institutes. Results Caesium clocks have been produced commercially since the late 1950s. In designing these devices a compromise between weight, volume, power consumption and performance and costs is unavoidable. Nowadays the clocks weigh about 25 kg and fit into 19-inch wide cabinets. Supply with AC and DC power at a typical rate of 50 Win parallel is common. Some models incorporate a battery for stand-alone operation for some 10 min. To the author’s knowledge, five manufacturers, listed in table 1 and in the following abbreviated by a single character, offer caesium clocks today. Manufacturers A and D offer several products for a wide range of applications. The specifications of products for general use have been compiled in table 2. A and D currently dominate the market of producing sealed caesium beam tubes (CBTs, see figure 2) and these are used to some extent in the products of F and O. Standard and high performance versions of their clocks are offered. Part of the improved specifications of the latter is due to a larger atomic flux employed which results in a larger S N ratio. The price to be paid (literally) is a faster depletion of the caesium reservoir and thus the more frequent need to replace the clocks’ CBT. Since the application of digital control processes has become state-of-the-art, the performance of caesium clocks has improved considerably. In practically all devices, the control of the LO is periodically switched into hold-over mode and several parameters affecting the accuracy and long-term stability of the clock are monitored. Among these are C-field strength, the microwave field amplitude and the atomic flux (signal level) (Cutler and Giffard 1992). Operational parameters are logged and can be retrieved through a computer interface. Manufacturer A reported on the long-term performance as well as on the statistics of the CBT. Numerous papers on experimentation, operation and properties of the space clocks of the US Global Positioning System (GPS) were published over the years in the Proceedings of the Annual Precise Time and Time Interval Systems and Applications Meeting. We briefly summarize the current status. The older block II and block IIA satellites carry two caesium and two rubidium AFSs. In total 46 caesium AFSs were launched, 41 supplied by D, 3 by Kand 2 by F.The performance of some of these clocks was discussed by McCaskill et al (1999) and Wu and Feess (2000). Some clocks have functioned in space for 10 years and more. Conclusion Another great contribution of Cesium element was the precise atomic clock. Cesium Atomic Clocks is a magnificent invention since it uses in many applications. Most atomic clocks in use today are passive cesium clocks. The United States National Bureau of Standards (NBS, now National Institute of Standards and Technology, or NIST) established the second as the time radiation would take to go through 9,192,631,770 cycles at the frequency emitted by cesium atoms making the transition from one state to another. Cesium clocks are so accurate that they will be off by only one second after running for 300 million years. This one seems to be a complex thesis since it is hard to understand. A past research regarding the use of cesium that is, the extracellular cesium application could induce spontaneous epileptiform activity in a rat hippocampus. Hippocampus is an area of brain associated with memory responsible or concerned with emotions and short term memory.
Cesium Induces Spontaneous Epileptiform Activity Without Changing Extracellular Potassium Regulation in Rat Hippocampus
Abstract Cesium is a potassium channel blocker that has been widely used to study the roles of certain potassium channels. Recently, cesium has been shown to have epileptogenic properties in neocortical and hippocampal slices. Extracellular application of cesium has been shown to cause a voltage-dependent block of both inwardly rectifying potassium (KIR) and H currents (Ih). It has been shown that only Ih is expressed in hippocampal CA1 neurons, whereas both KIR and Ih have been found in hippocampal astrocytes. Neuronal Ih is thought to be responsible for control of resting membrane potential, and blockade of Ih hyperpolarizes neurons. KIR is widely distributed in astrocytes and plays a dominant role in setting astroglial resting potentials. The biophysical features of astrocyte KIR are consistent with those properties required for their proposed involvement in potassium spatial buffering. The channel has a high open probability at the resting potential, it increases conductance with increasing extracellular potassium concentration ([K+] o), and it shows rectification at positive potentials. It has been concluded that the effects of cesium on epileptiform activity may be mediated predominantly by blockade of glial voltage-dependent potassium uptake. This is based on several observations. First, cesium causes epileptiform activity in bicuculline-treated slices, but not when normal synaptic inhibition is present, and cesium causes epileptiform discharges in hippocampal slices during 1-Hz stimulation, but not when paired with 0.1-Hz stimulation. Stimulation at 1 Hz is sufficient to increase extracellular potassium and thus stimulate glial uptake, which would be blocked in the presence of cesium. Second, cesium causes an early hyperpolarization and late depolarization in CA1 pyramidal neurons, and the delayed depolarizing effects of cesium are not accompanied by further changes in input resistance. This suggests that the late depolarization is due to an increase in [K+] o related to cesium block of potassium uptake. Third, the specific Ih channel blocker ZD-7288 does not cause epileptiform activity, suggesting that cesium blockade of the KIR is responsible for the epileptiform activity. However, studies on the characterization of KIR in astrocytes show that cesium displays no blockade of KIR at potentials close to the resting potential but increases blockade with more negative potentials. This suggests that addition of cesium would have no effect on channel conductance when the membrane has been depolarized, as with bicuculline or low-frequency stimulation. The experiments presented in this article addressed the following questions: 1) Can cesium induce spontaneous epileptiform activity in hippocampal slices or in cultured hippocampal neurons in the absence of stimulation or blockade of inhibitory systems? 2) Does increasing the [K+] o mimic the effect of adding cesium? 3) Does addition of cesium change the regulation of [K+] o? Methods Applied: Hippocampal slices were prepared by conventional methods from Sprague-Dawley rats (100-200 g, both sexes). After the rats were anesthetized (25 mg/kg ketamine, 5 mg/kg xylazine, 0.8 mg/kg acepromazine, ip), the brains were removed. Transverse slices (400-500 µm) through the hippocampus were cut with a Vibratome. Slices were placed in an interface-type chamber and continuously perfuse with artificial cerebrospinal fluid (ACSF) at 33°C under a stream of humidified 95% O2-5% CO2. Composition of the ACSF was (in mM) 127 NaCl, 2 KCl, 1.5 MgSO4, 1.1 KH2PO4, 26 NaHCO3, 2 CaCl2, and 10 glucose. All solutions were bubbled constantly with 95% O2-5% CO2. Thus, the total potassium concentration in normal ASCF was 3.1 mM. Slices were allowed to equilibrate for 1 h before electrophysiological recording was begun. Recording electrodes were made of microfilament capillary thin-walled glass (0.9 mm ID, 1.2 mm OD; A-M Systems) pulled on a micropipette puller (P-87, Sutter Instruments). Intracellular electrodes were filled with 4 M potassium acetate and had impedances between 60 and 100 M (tested with 20-nA current pulses). Extracellular electrodes were filled with 2 M NaCl and had impedances between 4 and 10 M . The spontaneously occurring epileptiform activities were induced by bath application of different concentration of CsCl (2-6 mM) in normal ACSF or by raising extracellular potassium concentration to 9-12 mM. Nonsynaptic epileptiform activity was induced in the dentate gyrus by changing to ACSF containing 0 added calcium and 8 mM potassium. This spontaneous epileptiform activity, termed field bursts, is associated with DC potential shifts and with population spikes that can measure in tens of millivolts. Field bursts can take a long time to develop (1-2 h), but once they appear, they remain stable for many hours. DC-coupled recording of field potentials and [K+]o were measured with double-barreled, ion-sensitive electrodes. One barrel was silanized with 15% tri-N-butylchlorosilane (Alfrebro, Monroe, OH) in chloroform, and the tip was filled with potassium-selective resin (Fluka Cocktail "B" or Corning 477317). The electrode was then backfilled with 1 M potassium acetate. The reference barrel was filled with 2 M NaCl. The reference and potassium signals were amplified and displayed on a chart recorder. The electrode was calibrated before each experiment in a series of standard solutions in ACSF (2, 3, 5, 10, and 20 mM K+) with or without 3 mM CsCl. Addition of cesium to the standard solutions altered the electrical potential measured but did not change the sensitivity of the electrode to the changes in potassium concentrations. During each experiment, the electrode was also calibrated by moving the electrode from the slice to the perfusion solution and comparing the potential recorded in the perfusing solution to that recorded from the tissue. Recordings were made 50-100 µm below the slice surface. The potassium microelectrode readings were allowed to stabilize at each locale for 2 min before the measurement was taken. Before electrical recording began, a microisland was transferred to a submerged chamber and continuously perfused with ACSF at room temperature. The cultured neurons were allowed to equilibrate for 1 h before electrophysiological recording began. The patch electrodes were pulled in two stages (PP-83, Narishige USA) using glass tubes (Garner Glass). The pipettes were then coated with Sylgard silicon elastomer; polished immediately before experiments, using a microforge (Narishige USA), to a final resistance of 2-4 M ; and filled with a solution containing (in mM) 135 K-gluconate, 20 KCl, 10 HEPES, 0.6 EGTA, 4 Mg-ATP, 0.3 Na-GTP, and 7 creatine phosphate. The signals were amplified and filtered using an Axoclamp patch-clamp amplifier and were collected and analyzed using Axobasic and pClamp computer programs. Results We demonstrated that extracellular cesium application could induce spontaneous epileptiform activity in a rat hippocampal slice without stimulation or bicuculline, and the epileptiform activity was not replicated by increasing the [K+]o. Measurements of the [K+]o indicated that cesium did not change the baseline level of [K+]o or the rate of recovery of [K+]o from elevated levels. Altogether, the data suggest that the bursting induced by cesium was not mediated simply by an increase in the extracellular potassium concentration. Previous studies have shown that cesium can produce epileptiform activity in slices treated with bicuculline or paired with 1-Hz stimulation, protocols that may be sufficient to increase the release of potassium from active neurons and stimulate glial uptake of potassium. In this study, we demonstrated that cesium could induce spontaneous epileptiform activity in CA1 and CA3 regions perfused with normal ACSF. It can be postulated that the neurons in the hippocampal slice perfused with normal ACSF are nominally at rest. At rest, it is believed that neurons release little potassium and that during low-frequency, unstimulated, and asynchronous neuronal activity, [K+]o is buffered independently from glial depolarization. Therefore, the addition of a glial potassium uptake inhibitor would be predicted to have little or no effect. In addition, cesium (the presumed glial potassium uptake blocker) does not block glial KIR at the resting membrane potential. These data suggest that the action of cesium in inducing epileptiform activity is independent of glial potassium uptake. To further support our conclusion that the epileptogenic effect of cesium is independent of an alteration in [K+]o regulation, we compared the epileptiform discharges induced by cesium with those induced by high [K+]o. The epileptiform activity and spreading depression induced by cesium were different in morphology than those induced by increasing [K+]o. This suggests that the effect of cesium is not simply due to an increase in the [K+]o and suggests that cesium may have another action besides blocking the glial potassium uptake. In cultured hippocampal neurons, which have a large and relatively unrestricted extracellular space, cesium also induced spontaneous cellular bursting without significantly depolarizing the resting potential, which would result from an increase in [K+]o. Finally, direct measurement of [K+]o did not detect any significant [K+]o increase before cesium induced spontaneous discharges in CA1 and CA3. In the dentate gyrus, cesium did not alter the baseline potassium level between field bursts or rate of recovery of [K+]o. These data further suggest that extracellular potassium accumulation or changes in the regulation of [K+]o are not necessary for the epileptogenic action of cesium. The results of the present study show that cesium caused spontaneous interacted discharges in the CA1 and CA3 regions of hippocampal slices mediated through glutamatergic transmission (blocked by CNQX). This effect may originate in the CA3 region, because the CA3 region is known to be necessary for the expression of interictal discharges in different in vitro seizure models. A previous study suggested that cesium-induced epileptiform activity originates in the CA3 region, because separation of the two regions obliterates bursting in CA1 but not in CA3. Studies in the low-Ca2+ model of epileptiform activity also have shown that cesium has no effect on CA1 field bursts. We also found that cesium induced epileptiform activity in the dentate gyrus. These observations suggest that a cesium-sensitive conductance in CA3 and the dentate gyrus, not in CA1, plays an important role in controlling normal excitability in the mammalian hippocampus. How might cesium be producing epileptiform activity, if not through a blockade of glial potassium uptake? It does not appear to be through a neuronal blockade of Ih, because the Ih-specific channel blocker ZD-7288 did not cause spontaneous epileptiform activity in the present experiments and in previous studies. What cesium-sensitive conductance in CA3 and the dentate gyrus could account for the epileptogenic action of cesium? Several explanations could account for the cesium-induced hyperexcitability. Cesium may lead to a generalized blockade of potassium currents. If the A and K currents are reduced by cesium, enhanced transmitter release could occur. Indeed, extracellular application of cesium has been shown to prolong action potential duration and to increase the quantal release of excitatory transmitters (Kumamoto and Kuba 1985 ). Intracellular application of Cs+ is known to block a variety of potassium currents. If some cesium gets into the neurons and their axons during a long exposure time, a modest nonspecific blockade of potassium current may result. This may contribute to the abnormal epileptiform activity observed in the CA1 and CA3 areas. However, the present studies in the dentate gyrus suggest that cesium can have a rapid effect, even in the absence of synaptic transmission. Blocking expressed channels reverses the suppression of excitability. Therefore, the cesium-induced epileptiform activity we describe may result from a reduction of neuronal KIR conductance. Conclusion In this study, application of cesium produced spontaneous epileptiform discharges at physiological extra cellular potassium concentration ([K+]o) in the regions of hippocampal slices. This epileptiform activity was not reproduced by increasing the potassium. In cultured hippocampal neurons, which have a large and relatively unrestricted extracellular space, cesium also produced cellular burst activity without significantly changing the resting membrane potential, which might indicate an increase in [K+]o. This results suggest that cesium causes epileptiform activity by a mechanism unrelated to an alteration in [K+]o regulation. Photocathode is defined in Microsoft Encarta as light-sensitive surface that emits electrons: an electrode that emits electrons when exposed to electromagnetic radiation such as light. Photocathodes are used in television and digital cameras and photoelectric cells. A brief historical background with photocathodes; The photoelectric effect was discovered in 1887 by Hertz in his experimentation and found out that the distance across which a spark could be induced was increased when ultraviolet light irradiated the negative electrode. Hallwachs also observed the same effect by discharging negatively charged zinc electrodes with ultraviolet light (he observed that positively charged electrodes could not be discharged in this manner). Elster and Geitel then discovered in 1889 that visible light could emit visible photoelectric effects in alkali metals. After J. J. Thomson discovered the electron in 1899, the photoelectric effect could be understood as electron emission induced by electromagnetic radiation. Photocathodes during 1920s were mostly metallic and had very low quantum efficiencies. It was not until the discovery of the “silver-oxygen-cesium” cathode in 1929 that interest in photoemission shifted from pure research to practical application.
Fabrication and Measurement of Cesiated Metal Photocathode
Abstract The process of photoemission can be viewed as a three-step process consisting of 1.) photon absorption, 2.) electron migration to the surface, and 3.) overcoming the barrier potential [10]. This perspective allows photoemission to be related to 6 characteristics of the material, such as scattering coefficient, optical reflectivity, and potential barrier height. Using this theory, the response times of existing cathodes can be estimated and are found to cover a range of six orders of magnitude [11]. In general, there is an inverse relationship between the response time of a photocathode and its quantum efficiency. Metals make very prompt emitters because electrons which can escape the barrier is found very close to the surface, but the high optical reflectivity of metals greatly limits their quantum efficiency because few photons are actually absorbed. Semiconductors, however, are less reflective and less conductive, so more photons are absorbed and are capable of escaping upon arriving at the surface. Because more electrons can overcome the surface barrier in semiconductors, they tend to have higher quantum efficiencies than metals. Since many electrons come from within the bulk, however, their transit time to the surface lengthens the response time. For accelerator applications, a fast temporal response is required so that the electron pulse occupies only a small fraction of the RF phase. If this is not the case, then electrons throughout the bunch experience different accelerating gradients and end up having a spread of energies. During the first fifty years of study on photoemission, it was considered a surface, rather than bulk effect [11]. But the first monolayer can absorb at best 10% of the incoming light [13] and if this were to account for the entire process, the quantum efficiency could not exceed 0.001 for any material [1]. This is clearly not the case, so photoemission in general must be considered an event involving both the surface and the bulk. In modern literature, the term ‘surface’ is reserved for the literal 7 monomolecular layer of a material. A primary distinction between the various types of photocathodes is the degree to which they can be considered metallic versus semiconducting. It is useful to distinguish between these two cases. Using band theory, metals are distinguished from insulators and semiconductors by the fact that, at absolute zero, their conduction band remains partially full. Semiconductors, at absolute zero, will have an empty conduction band separated by gap g E from a full valence band. Thus, ideal semiconductors are perfect insulators at absolute zero, but as temperature is increased some electrons are promoted to the conduction band giving rise to conductivity. In context of photoemission, in order for an electron to escape to vacuum, it must overcome not only the band gap but also the surface potential barrier, given by the electron affinity A E . Results Lifetime Measurements Improving unless it can be maintained for a practically useful lifetime. This project, in preparation for future dispenser cathode development, assumes that a periodic innovation period is an acceptable compromise to extensively long lifetimes. Another factor limiting cathode lifetime is ion back-bombardment. It was observed that if the entire chamber was used as an anode (instead of the annular disk, the cathode lifetime is extended by about 20%. This is presumably due to the fact that contaminants are generated near the anode as electrons from the cathode impinge on the surface. The close proximity of the anode to the cathode allows some of these impurities to contaminate the photosensitive surface layer and reduce lifetime. Using the chamber as an anode separates the cathode from impurity generation sites, effectively lengthening the lifetime of the cathode. Degradation Processes It was observed that as much as 72 hours could pass before noticeable degradation occurred in instantaneous quantum efficiency (i.e. the QE measured by turning the laser on briefly and then back off again for a long period of time). This is in contrast to the behavior, where the laser is on continuously and the QE eventually begins to decline over a period of several hours. At least two distinct processes are occurring during operation of the photocathode: 1.) evaporation of cesium from the surface, and 2.) contamination from impurities in the vacuum. The amount of impurities tends to increase when photocurrents are being generated because electrons are colliding with potentially dirty surfaces (either the anode or the chamber). Furthermore, the lower potential on the cathode will attract positively charged impurities and damage the cesium layer to some degree upon impact. Conclusion An important conclusion relative to future work is that the test chamber, evaporation techniques, vacuum procedures, and measurement methods yield repeatable experimental results that agree both with published literature and recent theory. The peak in QE at sub-monolayer coverage was seen in every evaporation run where more than one monolayer of cesium was initially deposited. The evaporation rates (monolayer and bulk) are in close agreement with that of similar metal, barium. Most importantly, the QE vs. coverage behavior nearly identically mimics that predicted by Jensen. This agreement allows the use of that theory in predicting the behavior of more different (and eventually more complex) systems, including cesium on silver and multi-species dispenser photocathode.
The Research Methodology
This part presented the research method and research locale as discussed below regarding the making of this thesis.
Research Method
It is a very hard task to seek for enough information in creating this thesis. This work comprises many wearies and sacrifices. We know the internet, considered as the world’s largest library contains vast but complex information. There were so many information’s regarding Cesium however most of them are vain. Most of them are only advertisements, some are nothing, and many are for commercial purposes. There are information’s that requires payment in order to access. Luckily I’d found few helpful websites that offer free information regarding Cesium. My resources in gathering information were the internet and encyclopedias such as Microsoft Encarta and Britannica Encyclopedia. Research Locale There is something funny in the making of this research. I am sitting for about 3-5 hours in front of my computer but all of a sudden not even a quarter was contributed for researching. It is because there are many set asides that catch my attention. My hobbies in internet were visiting websites such as friendster, myspace and other websites related to web designing. I am interested in learning HTML and CSS and thus consuming much of the time.
The Conclusions and Recommendations
This part presented the conclusions and recommendation as stated below concerning Cesium. Conclusion Cesium is a very essential element to human lives. It has a significant role in our society. As cited in this thesis are the studies and experimental reports regarding Cesium. Cesium can cure cancer and remember it is the most efficient alternative treatment for treating cancer. Cesium Chloride raises the cells’ pH to alkaline level. Cesium Chloride causes the cancer cell to disappear or vanished by raising the cancer cells’ pH to a high alkalinity. As it was observed in the areas in the world that cancer is almost zero or virtually unknown, that is in Hopi Indians in Arizona and the Hunza of North Pakistan. Their environment and the food they consuming is protecting them from possessing cancer. The Hopi water was abundant in Rubidium and Potassium. The Hunza water is rich in Cesium and Potassium, making both water supplies rich with alkaline metals makes clear why their no cancer. The results presented demonstrate the rate of effectiveness of Cesium Chloride in cancer therapy. The entire 50 cancer cases studied show an impressive 50% survival rate. This confirms the work reported in these account showing that the higher the dose it is, the more effective it seems to be. The autopsy found from the patient whose death was credited to traumatic fracture of the neck, indicated that cancer had been initially further advanced resulting in bone destruction. However, the absence of cancer after the massive Cesium Chloride dose used in this case is provable of the Cs-therapy. It should be noted, however, that Cesium Chloride dose schedule should no exceed 20 to 40 grams due to side effects, mainly nausea, and diarrhea. The usual dose used in the clinic ranges from 2 to 3 grams given by mouth 3 times daily. At a later time, at which time there is no indication of cancer presence, the CsCl dosage will be reduced to a preventative dose between .5 and 1 gram a day. Cesium is also employed in fabrications of Photocathodes. Photocathodes are used in televisions, digital cameras, and photoelectric cells. Cesium was also used in making Cesium Atomic Clocks which is the most accurate time basis. Cesium Atomic Clocks was used in explorations and navigation. That’s why cesium is considered as a very essential element. Here are the concluding answers regarding the element Cesium. 1. Cesium was discovered by Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert and Robert Wilhelm Bunsen. Gustav Robert is a German physicist, born in Kaliningrad, Russia, and educated at the University of Königsberg. He was professor of physics at the universities of Breslau, Heidelberg, and Berlin. With the German chemist Robert Wilhelm Bunsen, Kirchhoff developed the modern spectroscope for chemical analysis. In 1860 the two scientists discovered the elements cesium as well as rubidium by means of spectrum analysis. Kirchhoff conducted important investigations of radiation heat transfer and also postulated two rules, now known as Kirchhoff's laws of networks, concerning the distribution of current in electric circuits. 2. It is about half as abundant as lead and 70 times as abundant as silver . Cesium is moderately abundant in the Earth's crust with an estimated abundance of about 1-3 parts per million. It is found in an ore of lithium called lepidolite but, most abundantly, in the ore known as pollucite . Cesium ranks about 46th in natural abundance among the elements in crustal rocks. Cesium melts at about 28° C (about 82° F), boils at about 669° C (about 1236° F), and has a specific gravity of 1.88; its atomic weight is 132.905. 3. The natural source yielding the greatest quantity of cesium is the rare mineral pollux (or pollucite). Ores of this mineral found on the island of Elba contain 34 percent of cesium oxide; American ores of pollux, found in Maine and South Dakota, contain 13 percent of the oxide. Cesium also occurs in lepidolite, carnallite, and certain feldspars. It is extracted by separating the cesium compound from the mineral, transforming the compound thus obtained into the cyanide, and electrolysis of the fused cyanide. Cesium can also be obtained by heating its hydroxides or carbonates with magnesium or aluminum and by heating its chlorides with calcium. Commercial cesium usually contains rubidium, with which it usually occurs in minerals and which resembles it so closely that no effort is made to separate them. 4. The figure below shows the human cells pH range. pH is the term applied in determining cells’ alkalinity or acidity. Higher numbers indicates alkalinity while small numbers indicates acidity. The human cell has a normal pH of 7.35 which means below this number is acidic. The cancer cell is in the range of 6 to 7 pH. At the moment wherein Cesium Chloride entered in a cancer cell, it raises the cells’ pH. When cells’ pH reached 8, it will die for about some hours and when it reached higher number of pH, it will die in a matter of seconds. Such an amusing incident was what happened to a woman which intake much Cesium Chloride than the prescribed to her. As a result, no more indications was seen to her. 5. Cesium compounds are encountered rarely by most people. All cesium compounds should be regarded as toxic because of its chemical similarity to potassium. Because of this similarity, the isotopes present in the biosphere in small amounts as a result of radiation leaks are very toxic. Large amounts of Cesium cause hyperirritability, spasms, dizziness, abdominal cramps, vomiting, diarrhea, convulsion and collapse. Cesium is highly reactive, specially with moisture. Extremely corrosive to tissue. If cesium ignites, it will cause thermal burns. The metal rapidly forms caustic and highly corrosive alkali hydroxide with evolution of heat. Severe thermal and chemical burns will result at every point of human contact. Chronic ingestion of Cesium has been fatal to laboratory animals, possibly due to the replacement of potassium. Chronic exposures also have blood and neuromuscular effects. Recommendation The application of Cesium Therapy as an alternative for curing cancer was obvious amazing. Therefore it must be applied to patients having cancer rather than the use of orthodox medicine and other alternatives. Further, the author wanted to recommend something regarding Cesium. 1. The information regarding Cesium must be propagated and more study should be imposed. 2. Since Cesium belongs to rare elements. Industries should search intense for other available sources of Cesium. 3. The price of Cesium in industry is expensive for so many reasons. Such of those are; its occurrences were rare, the processes in obtaining Cesium are a complex one and there is a large demand of cesium in industry. Researches should discover more simple and inexpensive way to obtain Cesium. 4. Cesium Chloride dosage requires further study. Several problems have arisen concerning side effects so the minimal dosage of Cesium Chloride must be determined. The currently acceptable dosage was 3.0g per day. Those that intake 6 to 10g per day experienced side effects such as inflammation and nausea. 5. Proper information should be implemented in all places wherein the presence of Cesium is observed.
Bibliography
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